When do I use 甚至 vs 乃至?

Use 甚至 in most contexts (speech and writing) to mean 'even' emphasizing an extreme. Use 乃至 only in formal, written Chinese, especially where there is a sense of progression or expanded scope, such as 'from X to Y and even Z'.

Can 乃至 be used in spoken Chinese?

It is very rare and sounds overly formal. In conversation, always prefer 甚至 or 就连 for 'even'.

Does 乃至 have the same meaning as 'even' in English?

Not exactly. 乃至 often implies a logical progression or range extension, whereas English 'even' can be used for a single exception. In many cases where 乃至 fits, English would use 'and even' or 'up to and including'.

Is 乃至 interchangeable with 甚至 in written Chinese?

Not always. In formal academic or legal texts, 乃至 is preferred when listing items in an ascending order or showing that something extends to a higher level. 甚至 is more general and can be used in less formal writing, but using it where 乃至 is expected may sound slightly less precise.

Easily confusedHSK 6

甚至 vs 乃至 (shèn zhì vs nǎi zhì): formal 'even' vs common 'even'

甚至 is the standard, everyday word for 'even', used to introduce an extreme example in both speech and writing. 乃至 is a highly formal, written term that means 'and even' or 'up to', indicating a progression or expanded scope rather than a single extreme point. The key distinction is register and whether you are contrasting one extreme or extending a range.

Both 甚至 and 乃至 can be translated as 'even' in English, but they differ in register and function. 甚至 is the common, versatile term used in all styles of Chinese to introduce an extreme or surprising example. 乃至 is a formal, literary word that typically appears in written language to indicate a progression from one item to another, often with the sense of 'up to' or 'and even including', connecting items in a series or expanding a range. Using 乃至 in casual speech sounds unnatural; conversely, 甚至 can be used in formal writing as well, making it the safer choice in most contexts.

When to use each

甚至shèn zhì

even (introducing an extreme example)

Use 甚至 in everyday speech and writing to emphasize an unexpected or extreme instance, often to the point of exaggeration. It can introduce a noun, verb phrase, or clause. For example: '他甚至连水都没喝' (He didn't even drink water).

甚至 can also be used in formal writing, but it does not carry the same progression sense as 乃至. It simply marks the most extreme item in a list or the most surprising fact.

乃至nǎi zhì

and even / up to (formal written progression)

Use 乃至 in formal or academic writing to show that something extends to a higher or broader level, often after listing intermediate items. It implies a natural progression, e.g., '从地方到全国乃至全球' (from local to national and even global). It is rarely used in conversation.

乃至 often appears with enumerations or ranges (从...到...乃至...), and it can also be written as 乃至於 in traditional text. It is more emphatic than 甚至 in formal contexts because it suggests a logical extension.

At a glance

	甚至	乃至
Register	Colloquial and formal	Highly formal, literary
Typical context	Emphasizing a single extreme example	Connecting a progression or range
Use in speech	Very common	Rare; unnatural in casual conversation
Position in sentence	Often before the extreme item or clause	Usually after a series or in a 'from…to…' structure

Examples

甚至
他甚至连一句中文也不会说。
Tā shèn zhì lián yī jù zhōngwén yě bù huì shuō.
He can't even speak a single sentence of Chinese.
甚至 used to highlight an extreme lack of ability.
乃至
这座桥的设计考虑了防震、防洪乃至防台风。
Zhè zuò qiáo de shèjì kǎolǜ le fángzhèn, fánghóng nǎi zhì fáng táifēng.
The design of this bridge considers earthquake resistance, flood control, and even typhoon resistance.
乃至 shows progression from one protection to another, with typhoon as the extreme end of the scope.
甚至
他工作非常努力，甚至周末也不休息。
Tā gōngzuò fēicháng nǔlì, shèn zhì zhōumò yě bù xiūxi.
He works very hard, not resting even on weekends.
甚至 adds emphasis to the extreme example (not resting on weekends).
乃至
这次活动影响了整个城市乃至全国。
Zhè cì huódòng yǐngxiǎng le zhěnggè chéngshì nǎi zhì quánguó.
This event affected the entire city and even the whole country.
乃至 connects the city and country, showing expanded scope.
乃至
✗我乃至忘了她的名字。
Wǒ nǎi zhì wàng le tā de míngzì.
I even forgot her name.
✗ Incorrect in spoken or informal context; should use 甚至.
甚至
他甚至连自己的生日都忘记了。
Tā shèn zhì lián zìjǐ de shēngrì dōu wàngjì le.
He even forgot his own birthday.
甚至 works naturally for a single extreme example.

Common mistakes

Using 乃至 in casual speech, e.g., '我乃至不喜欢他' – should be 甚至.
Using 乃至 to introduce a single extreme example without a progression, e.g., '他乃至不吃饭' – sounds unnatural and overly formal.
Using 甚至 in a formal progression structure like '从A到B甚至C' is acceptable, but if the graduation is explicit, 乃至 is preferred in formal writing.
Confusing 乃至 as a synonym for 就连, which is also informal; 乃至 cannot be replaced by 就连 in formal texts.

FAQ

When do I use 甚至 vs 乃至?: Use 甚至 in most contexts (speech and writing) to mean 'even' emphasizing an extreme. Use 乃至 only in formal, written Chinese, especially where there is a sense of progression or expanded scope, such as 'from X to Y and even Z'.
Can 乃至 be used in spoken Chinese?: It is very rare and sounds overly formal. In conversation, always prefer 甚至 or 就连 for 'even'.
Does 乃至 have the same meaning as 'even' in English?: Not exactly. 乃至 often implies a logical progression or range extension, whereas English 'even' can be used for a single exception. In many cases where 乃至 fits, English would use 'and even' or 'up to and including'.
Is 乃至 interchangeable with 甚至 in written Chinese?: Not always. In formal academic or legal texts, 乃至 is preferred when listing items in an ascending order or showing that something extends to a higher level. 甚至 is more general and can be used in less formal writing, but using it where 乃至 is expected may sound slightly less precise.